Abstract

Per-and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a family of fluorinated artificial chemicals manufactured substantially for commercial and industrial uses in recent decades due to their remarkable hydrophobicity and stability. The PFAS contains numerous carbon-fluorine linkages, making them highly resilient to chemical and biological destruction. Conventional water and wastewater treatment plants do not effectively remove PFAS; as a result, PFAS make their way to aquatic ecosystems. Significant attempts have been made in the past few years to develop efficient techniques for removing PFAS. For instance, methods such as thermal treatment, adsorption, filtration, chemical oxidation, and reduction have significant drawbacks, including high cost, excessive use of energy, and unsuitable for in-situ treatment. The current review emphasized the suitability of natural engineering techniques, such as fungal and algae degradation, microbial bioremediation, constructed wetlands, bio-electrochemical techniques, and green adsorption methods for removing PFAS. This review covers the specific mechanism, removal efficiency, and pros and cons of each technology. A thorough economic analysis and the pilot-scale investigations are also presented at the end. Further details regarding the existing obstacles to the field's implementation along with future research directions for each technology, are provided. Overall, this paper provides an in-depth and up-to-date review for industry experts and researchers in this field that could facilitate easy access to knowledge and valuable insights into research possibilities. © 2025 Elsevier B.V.