Abstract

In the realm of early literacy, the emphasis on phonological awareness (PA) as a predictor of reading success has been largely shaped by research in opaque orthographies. While substantial research exists in transparent orthographies like Spanish, it is less extensive than in opaque orthographies and shows inconsistent findings regarding PA’s predictive role. This study challenges the traditional focus on PA by highlighting the critical importance of print learning (PL), defined as the ability to recognize and understand key visual elements of written language before formal reading instruction. Using a longitudinal design, we followed 234 kindergarten students (48.7% girls) for two years, of whom 75% recognized six or fewer letters at the start. PL, PA, and letter-sound knowledge were assessed in kindergarten, with reading fluency, pseudoword reading, and reading comprehension measured in second grade. Hierarchical ordinary least squares and quantile regression analyses evaluated the predictive contributions of PL and PA, controlling for early letter knowledge. PL emerged as a stronger and more consistent predictor of reading outcomes than PA. It significantly predicted all reading measures, whereas PA only predicted fluency and comprehension, and primarily for higher-performing readers. In contrast, PL remained a robust predictor across all proficiency levels. These findings underscore the value of early print exposure in transparent orthographies and the utility of quantile regression in revealing differential predictor effects. Literacy interventions in such languages should prioritize PL to support readers at all skill levels. © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2025.