Abstract

Protected areas are recognized as an essential tool to safeguard habitat integrity and biodiversity in the Anthropocene. Substantial efforts have been made to clarify the conditions under which they deliver conser-vation outcomes effectively. Location, spatial design, management strategy and threats, have commonly been identified as key factors. The impacts of these factors have, however, often been evaluated independently, and there is limited information on how their combined and interactive effects can improve or hinder protected area effectiveness. Here we develop a framework for understanding the combined effects of these factors. This has important implications for how protected areas are established and maintained.