Abstract

Variable Renewable Energy (VRE), i.e., wind and solar photovoltaics (PVs), is being installed in rapidly increasing amounts around the world. Growth in VRE is being spurred by ambitious zero-carbon targets set by countries and individual states across the globe. The European Union approved a carbon neutrality target for 2050 in 2019. Japan's newly appointed prime minister announced the same target in 2020, and the Chinese government set goals to peak carbon emissions before 2030 and become carbon neutral by 2060.